Minds On
What is the basis for a strong relationship?
In your opinion, what makes a relationship or friendship strong?
Student Success
Think
Create a list of traits that describe someone who is a good friend. Some examples include being trustworthy, loyal, and kind.
Next, think about the responsibilities each person has in a friendship.
Consider what people do to maintain friendships and be good friends. These might include paying attention to a friend’s problems, setting your own boundaries, or being there when a friend needs support.
Record your ideas in the fillable and printable document Maintaining Friendships. You can use both words and images to show your thinking. You may also complete this activity in your notebook or use a method of your choice.
If possible, share your ideas with a partner. Did you identify similar or different traits and responsibilities? Why do you think that is?
Action
Historic Canadian relationships
As you may probably notice from your list in the Minds On, each person has their own set of values that influence what they think is important to make the friendship successful.
Sometimes our distinct cultures, religions, and worldviews (the way we interpret the world around us) can influence how we think, act, and treat others.
Before Confederation
Prior to Confederation, Indigenous Peoples, specifically First Nations Peoples, had well-developed treaties, alliances, and relationships with the British Crown. In 1763, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 created a set of laws and boundaries for First Nations Peoples in Canada. In it, King George III established rights for Indigenous Peoples and made the Crown responsible for protecting Indigenous lands from settler encroachment. It also recognized that all land belonged to Indigenous Peoples.
Indigenous Peoples were not invited or represented at the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences prior to Confederation. The Fathers of Confederation held a paternalistic view of Indigenous Peoples and therefore Indigenous Peoples were not consulted and were excluded from any formal discussions about unifying the colonies. This signaled a much different relationship than what was previously established between Indigenous Peoples and the British.
Press Paternalistic for a description of the term.
Treating a group of people as if they are unable to make decisions for themselves and making decisions for them without asking or including them.
Impact on Indigenous communities
Although Indigenous Peoples were not consulted, Confederation was set to have a significant impact on Indigenous communities. The Dominion wanted to develop, settle, and claim more land and thus the government began to expand its colonization efforts over Indigenous Peoples and sought to take more land away from Indigenous communities. As a result, the Numbered Treaties and the Indian Act were a direct consequence of Confederation and colonization.
Western expansion
Colonial governments believed that Western expansion was a vital part of Canada’s economic future. As the Dominion of Canada was joining forces, the United States was rapidly expanding westward and possible invasion by the United States was a fear many Canadian politicians had. As a result, it became important for colonial governments to gain more land under the Dominion and continue the policy begun by the British Crown by signing land treaties with First Nations but with much different intentions.
After Confederation, Canada become the successor to lands in Canada that were formally controlled by Britain. And with it, the jurisdiction over the Indigenous Peoples and lands also transferred to the Canadian government. This further complicated Indigenous and settler relationships, as Indigenous Peoples faced new laws, new relationships, and new legal definitions as to how they were defined and treated in the new nation of Canada.
True or false
Use the information you just explored to complete this true or false activity. Select either "true" or "false" for each statement.
Reflection question
Based on what you have learned, do you think the Canadian government wanted to continue a relationship with First Nations? Why or why not? Record your answer in a method of your choice.
The Numbered Treaties
Treaties are agreements that are made between two nations and are legally binding. There is a long history of treaty-making on Turtle Island and on the lands now known as Canada. Early treaties between Indigenous communities, and later with European settlers, focused on relationships and living peacefully together. These treaties between nations outlined each party’s roles and responsibilities. These treaties were recorded orally and, visually, through such forms as wampum belts. No two treaties are the same.
Did You Know?
Did you know?
“Wampum belts composed of shell beads woven into appropriate symbolic representations. To accept a wampum belt in formal council was to agree to adhere to the principles embodied in its woven design. The wampum thereafter served to help perpetuate the memory of the treaty.”
Source: Hall, 2017
Treaties were made between First Nations and the British Crown, and later Canada, after Confederation. These allowed the Crown to use the expansive traditional lands of Indigenous Peoples in exchange for specific obligations from the Crown. The Crown was to provide reserves, payments, clothing, weapons, farming equipment, and medicines, among other elements, in exchange for use of Indigenous land. Treaties outlined what was required of both parties to fulfill this partnership. These treaties were made to ensure peaceful relationships and could be revisited to ensure continued times of peace. Modern treaties are also signed today between First Nations communities and Canada.
After Confederation, the Crown aimed to settle the West and expand its agriculture, economy, and resource development. The result was the Numbered Treaties, numbered from 1 to 11, which cover parts of British Columbia, the Northwest Territories, Yukon, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Northern Ontario and were signed between 1871 and 1921.
As we work towards Truth and Reconciliation, information about lands and territories is constantly being updated. This map was created using information available as of July 2021 from Wikipedia Commons.
A map of Canada showing the areas covered by the Numbered Treaties, highlighting the treaty number and the year each treaty was signed. Treaty 1 (1871) in southern Manitoba; Treaty 2 (1871) in southeastern Saskatchewan; Treaty 3 (1873) along the Ontario-Manitoba border; Treaty 4 (1874) in southern Saskatchewan; Treaty 5 (1875 and 1908) across central and northern Manitoba and into small portions of Ontario and Saskatchewan; Treaty 6 (1876-78 and 1889) in central Saskatchewan and Alberta; Treaty 7 (1877) in southern Alberta; Treaty 8 (1899) in northern Alberta, northeastern British Columbia, and southern Northwest Territories; Treaty 9 (1905-06 and 1929-30) across northern Ontario and the Quebec border region; Treaty 10 (1906) in northern Saskatchewan; and Treaty 11 (1921) spanning the Northwest Territories, and parts of Yukon and Nunavut.
Before you read about and research the Numbered Treaties, it is important to understand that during this time Indigenous communities were experiencing a rapid change in their traditional life and sustenance. Increased settler pressures and encroachment had led to food shortages and diminished wildlife to hunt, trap, and fish, especially after the Fur Trade era. Colonial governments were forcibly removing Indigenous Peoples from their communities and traditional territories through starvation or other violent tactics to make room for more European settlers.
Researching the Numbered Treaties
For this activity, you will research and record your finding on one of the 11 Numbered Treaties. You can select any treaty between Treaty 2 and Treaty 11. Treaty 1 is completed as an exemplar in the research chart in the next section.
You can start your research using the Canadian encyclopedia websites or Canadian museum websites.
As you conduct your research, think about what the Indigenous Peoples were promised and what the government gained. Consider including short-term and long-term impacts from the treaty.
Use the following interactive checklist as you find the answers to each question:
Example of Numbered Treaty research
Press Example to explore a complete research chart of the Numbered Treaty 1.
Treaty 1 |
|
|---|---|
When and where was the treaty made? |
August 3, 1871 in southern Manitoba |
Who were the parties involved? |
The Crown, the Ojibwe, and the Swampy Cree Nations |
What were the details of the treaty? |
“Each band was to receive a reserve large enough to provide 160 acres for each family of five (or in like proportion for smaller or larger families). Each man, woman, and child was to be given a gratuity — or one-time payment — of three dollars, and a yearly annuity totalling $15 per family of five. The government also agreed to maintain a school on each reserve and to prohibit the introduction or sale of liquor on reserves.” Source: Albers, 2015 The Anishinaabe and Swampy Cree were required to surrender “a tract of land described in detail in the treaty: a substantial amount of present-day southeast and south-central Manitoba, including the Red River Valley, and stretching north to the lower parts of Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipeg and west along the Assiniboine River to the towns of Portage la Prairie and Brandon.” Source: Albers, 2015 |
What were the impacts of this treaty of Indigenous Peoples and the Canadian government? How did this treaty change the legal status of Indigenous Peoples and affect their rights and privileges? |
The impacts on the Anishinaabe and the Swampy Cree were that the treaty surrendered their ownership over their homelands. However, they did not believe they gave up their lands, especially when the treaties said that they could practice their traditional hunting and activities on the land. They could no longer do this though with settlers living on their territories and the creation of reserves contradicted this. They also did not receive their allotted lands per family that they were promised. On the other hand, the Government took ownership of these lands for settlement which led to much more land for European settlers. They received all this land for a minimal payment of $3 but would provide education and reserves. However, both had negative impacts on Indigenous communities. |
Record your research in the following fillable and printable document entitled Numbered Treaty Research. You can also complete this activity in your notebook or use a method of your choice.
Press the Activity button to access Numbered Treaty Research.
Impact of the Numbered Treaties
The Numbered Treaties have had a long-lasting legal, social, and economic impact on First Nations Peoples. They fundamentally changed the legal status of Indigenous Peoples compared to other settlers. The creation of reserves and eventually residential schools would become instruments of assimilation that would negatively affect Indigenous culture, knowledges, traditions, languages, and way of life, limiting their rights and freedoms.
On the other hand, the Numbered Treaties have helped to guide the relationship between the federal government and First Nations Peoples by holding them accountable for the promises they made through these legally binding agreements.
Medals such as this one were presented to the chief who signed certain treaties. On one side is the bust of Queen Victoria and on the reverse is an Indigenous leader shaking hands with a british officer.
The Numbered Treaties were and remain controversial. The promises made by the Canadian government were rarely fulfilled, and the interpretations of the treaties were vastly different. Settlers and the government viewed the 11 Numbered Treaties as transactional: negotiations of cash in return for land and sovereignty. First Nations, however, viewed treaties as long-term pacts of peace, friendship, and mutual support. The Canadian government believed that the treaties ceded, or surrendered, Indigenous lands to Canada. First Nations believed they agreed to share the lands as land could not be owned. The treaty-making process also benefited the Canadian government as the negotiations were done in English through written documents and with the aid, at times, of a translator for First Nations communities, though this was not guaranteed.
Reflection question
Reflecting on your list from the beginning of the activity, how would the Numbered Treaties impact the relationships between the Canadian government and Indigenous Peoples?
Based on what you have learned, how did the Canadian government's and First Nations' perspectives impact their understandings of their relationships and the treaties?
True or false
Determine if each statement is "true" or "false" and select the appropriate answer.
Consolidation
Modern impacts
Based on this learning activity and your own research, answer the following questions in your notebook or another method of your choice. Use specific examples to support your answers.
- What impact did Confederation and the Numbered Treaties have on the legal rights of Indigenous Peoples? How did these changes affect their relationship with the new government?
- How did Confederation and the Numbered Treaties change the daily lives of Indigenous Peoples?
- How did the Canadian government and Indigenous Peoples differ in their interpretations of the Numbered Treaties? You may wish to consider Western expansion, different views on land ownership and the purpose and meaning of treaties.
Reflection
As you read the following descriptions, select the one that best describes your current understanding of the learning in this activity. Press the corresponding button once you have made your choice.
I feel...
Now, expand on your ideas by recording your thoughts using a voice recorder, speech-to-text, or writing tool.
When you review your notes on this learning activity later, reflect on whether you would select a different description based on your further review of the material in this learning activity.
Press Discover More to extend your skills.
Discover MoreResearch the First Nations Treaty that is involved on the land where you currently live. For example, in Southern Ontario, research the Williams Treaties and identify the promises that were made in exchange for where you live. Analyze if these promises have been met and the impact of this treaty on the lives of you and the First Nations Peoples. Use Canadian Encyclopedia as a place to start your research.